Arauco War
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| Arauco War | |||||||
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 Picture from Alonso de Ovalle's Historia de Chile |
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| Belligerents | |||||||
 Spanish Empire |
Mapuche, Huilliche and Picunche warriors | ||||||
| Commanders | |||||||
| Pedro de Valdivia † Francisco de Villagra García Hurtado de Mendoza García Óñez de Loyola † Alonso de Ribera |
Lautaro † Caupolican † Colo-Colo Pelantaru Mestizo Alejo |
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| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 30,000-42,000 Spanish1 60,000 Indian auxiliaries |
90,000-100,0001 | ||||||
| 1 About half of the Spanish died by direct concequences of the war. Casualities as estimated in 1664 by Spanish | |||||||
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The Arauco War was a long conflict between colonial Spaniards and the Mapuche people of the region of Araucanía, of modern Chile. The beginning of the conflict is usually placed at the Battle of Reynogüelén, which occurred in 1536 between an expedition of Diego de Almagro and a well organized and numerous group of Mapuche soldiers, near the confluence of the Ñuble and Itata rivers. Its end however, is more difficult to pin down. After 1609, each governor of Chile held "Parlamentos" with the Mapuche chiefs, in which they discussed the maintenance of a treaty between both parties, violations of which were quite frequent.
[edit] Campaigns of Pedro de Valdivia (1546–1553)
During the early phase of the Conquest of Chile, the Spanish conquistador, Pedro de Valdivia conducted a nine year campaign to secure the city of Santiago, which had been destroyed on September 11, 1541 by the Mapochoes under the direction of their chief, Michimalonco. Valdivia hoped to enlarge the territory under his jurisdiction and, despite injuries from a fall from his horse, resolved to take personal command of a land expedition into Araucanía.
In 1544, he had sent a naval expedition comprised of the barks, San Pedro and Santiaguillo, under the command of Juan Bautista Pastene, to reconnoiter the southwestern coast of South America to the Strait of Magellan. The expedition set sail from Valparaíso, entered the bay of San Pedro, and made landings at what is now known as Concepción and at Valdivia, which was later named in honor of the commander. Encountering severe storms further south, he then returned to Valparaiso.
Valdivia himself set out in 1546, with sixty horsemen plus native guides and porters, and crossed the Itata River and were attacked by Mapuche warriors in the Battle of Quilacura near the Bío-Bío River. Realizing that it would be impossible to proceed in such hostile territory with so limited a force, Valdivia wisely elected to return to Santiago after finding a site for new city at what is now Penco and was the first site of Concepción.
[edit] Founding of Concepción, Imperial, and Valdivia
In 1550, a new expedition was launched, consisting of a naval force under Pastene, and a land force of two hundred Spaniards mounted and foot and a number of Mapocho auxilleries under Valdivia. They planned to reunite on the shores of the Bay of Concepción. The expedition advanced beyond the Itata River and Laja River, to the shores of the Bio-Bio River. Along the way they had several battles with groups of Mapuches as they explored the region killing many with little loss to themselves. After spending over a week in the area and encountering increasing opposition, the Spanish marched toward the Sea through the valleys of the Laja and Bío-Bío rivers, towards the coast at Penco. On the banks of the Andalién River, they camped for two days between the river and a lake, where they were attacked on the second night by a large force of Araucanians under their toqui Ainavillo in the Battle of Andalien. The night attack was defeated, the Spaniards suffering one killed and many wounds to men and especially their mounts. After a day treating their wounds they continued onward towards their rendezvous at the Bay of Concepción.[1][2] There Valdivia began building fort at what is now Penco.
On February 23rd, the naval force under Pastene anchored in the bay, and provided materials to finish the fort, brought supplies and reinforcements.[1] On March 1 Valdivia founded here the city of Concepción del Nuevo Extremo. On March 3rd of that year, the fort was completed and was attacked nine days later by the largest force of Mapuches yet seen in the Battle of Penco. This force was broken and routed despite the small size of the Spanish forces.[1][3] Despite the resulting submission of the local tribes, Valdivia sent an emissary to the Viceroy of Peru, asking for additional forces; he knew that it would not be possible to complete the conquest of Arauco with only the forces at his disposal. After reinforcement at Concepción in 1551, he organized another expedition to establish the fort La Imperial on the banks of the Imperial River. He then returned to Concepción to prepare another expedition and await the reinforcements the Viceroy had promised to send by sea.
Leaving orders that the new troops should disembark on the Tierras de Valdivia that Pastene had discovered earlier, Valdivia left with two hundred soldiers in the direction of Fort Imperial. Once he had passed it on his way south, he ordered Jerónimo de Alderete to drive inland and establish a fort, with the goal of securing his eastern flank. To this end, Alderente reached Lake Villarrica and established a fort there. Meanwhile, Valdivia's column advanced southwards and joined the reinforcements sent from Peru, under the command of Francisco de Villagra. There, Fort Valdivia was established. After garrisoning the new forts, Valdivia returned to his base at Concepción in 1552.
[edit] The Toqui Lautaro and the Battle of Tucapel
With the goal of securing the lines of communication with the southern forts, Valdivia launched a third expedition which established forts at Tucapel, Purén, Confines, Arauco, and Lebu. The Araucanians didn't offer any resistance to the conquistadors in their fort-building.
In 1553, the Mapuches held a council at which, because of the growth of Spanish forces in their territory, they resolved to make war. They chose as "toqui" (wartime chief) a man called Lautaro, who had served as an auxiliary to the Spanish cavalry. Because of his experiences with the Spanish, he had some insight into the best methods for fighting the conquistadors.
With six thousand warriors under his command, Lautaro attacked the fort at Tucapel. The Spanish garrison was unable to withstand the assault and retreated to Purén. Certain that the Spaniards would attempt to retake it, Lautaro seized Tucapel. Valdivia, with a reduced force, mounted a counter-attack, but he was quickly surrounded and his army was massacred by the Mapuches in the Battle of Tucapel. This was Pedro de Valdivia's last battle; he was captured and later killed in captivity.
[edit] Campaigns of Caupolicán and Lautaro (1554–1557)
After the defeat at Tucapel, the Spanish hurriedly reorganized their forces, reinforcing fort Imperial for its defence and abandoning Confines and Arauco in order to strengthen Concepción. However, Araucanian tradition dictated a lengthy victory celebration, which kept Lautaro from exploiting the weakness of the Spanish position as he desired. It was only in February of 1554 that he succeeded in putting together an army of 8,000 men, just in time to confront a punitive expedition under the command of Francisco de Villagra at the Battle of Marihueñu.
Despite this new victory, Lautaro was again unable to pursue the opportunity due to the celebrations and beliefs of his people. By the time he arrived at Concepción, it was already abandoned. After burning it, he could not continue the offensive with his remaining forces, and the campaign came to an end as the warriors demobilized.
In Santiago, Villagra reorganized his forces, and that same year of 1554, he departed again for Arauco and reinforced the strongholds of Imperial and Valdivia, without any interference from the Mapuches, who were dealing with their first epidemic of smallpox, which was brought by the Spanish. In 1555, the Real Audiencia in Lima, ordered him to reconstruct Concepción, which was done under the command of Capitan Alvarado. Lautaro attacked Concepción when he learned that it was being rebuilt, with 4,000 warriors. He put the town under siege, which Alvarado attempted to break unsuccessfully. Only 38 Spaniards managed to escape by sea from this second destruction of the city.
Meanwhile in the north the victories of Lautauro lead to uprisings by the previously subdued Promaucaes in the valley of the Mataquito River and the Picunche in the valley of the Aconcagua River but these were put down [4]. In 1556, the Promauces sent a message to the Mapuche of Arauco promising food to support their army and warriors to join it in a war against the Spanish in Santiago [5].
[edit] Lautaro's campaign against Santiago
After his victories in the south and the messages promising support from the north, Lautaro planned an assault on Santiago. With the ravages of the recent epidemic and the needs of the campaign against the Spanish still occupying cities within Mapuche territory still going on, he was not able to draw many troops from the main Mapuche army for his campaign to the north [6]. He had to rely on recruiting warriors among the people north of the Bio Bio River among subjugated Mapuche and the Promaucaes north of the Itata River, who were now inspired by the previous successes of Lautaro to revolt again.
But when he entered the places subject to Santiago, he began taking reprisals against the Promaucaes who refused to join him, doing great damage and depopulating the land. The refugees fled to the city for aid and protection [7]. In October of 1556 he reached the Mataquito River in his northward march. There he built a fortified camp near Teno in a place called Peteroa as a base of operations against Santiago. Lautaro ambushed a first probe by a small Spanish force from Santiago. A larger force under Pedro de Villagra later attacked the fortress at Peteroa over several days but were not able to take it and were forced away by flooding. However with unfavorable losses and more Spaniards coming to Villagra's support, Lautaro retreated towards the Maule River hoping to establish himself there. However the Spanish cavalry of Juan Godíñez pursued to the Maule River cutting down stragglers and one of Lautaros detachments was cut to pieces. Lautaro's army gave them the slip, but was forced to fall back beyond the Itata River. Captain Gudiñez returned victorious from this pursuit and put great fear into the Promaucaes by punishing them with distruction of their herds, feilds and houses and by cutting off some heads, as a lesson not to call upon the Mapuche army or give aid to them [8].
In January 1557, Francisco de Villagra marched south to aid the remaining cities against the Mapuche army led by Caupolicán. Informed by his allies the city of Santiago was now relatively unprotected, Lautaro evaded Villagra, letting him pass to the south while he marched again toward Santiago with a new army including allies under Panigualgo [9]. However Lautaro's mistreatment of the intimidated local Indians to extract provisions had created dissention among his allies. His allies separated from him after the army reached the Mataquito River at Lora, after a dispute over his actions with an allied leader named Chillan who accused Lautaro of acting like the Spaniards[10]. He moved his remaining army over a league up river and again established a fortified camp on the Mataquito River amid a carrizal at the foot of a wooded hill. However its location was betrayed to Francisco de Villagra by local Indians previously abused by Lautaro. Villagra sent word to Juan Godíñez near Santiago to meet him as he hurried north. The Spanish forces met without Lautaro being alerted and made a surprise night march over the hills of Caune, to the hill overlooking the Lautaro's camp, on the shore of the Mataquito River. On April 29th, at dawn Villagra began the Battle of Mataquito with a surprise attack on the camp in which they killed Lautaro and obtained a decisive victory distroying his army and dispersing his allies.
[edit] Campaigns of Caupolicán and García Hurtado de Mendoza
After the death of Lautaro the Mapuches chose Caupolicán as their new Toqui. After the death of Jerónimo de Alderete in Panama while returning to Chile, García Hurtado de Mendoza, Marquis of Cañete was designated the interim governor of Chile in 1557, and immediately sailed south from Peru, this time with a much stronger force than before: 600 soldiers, 6 pieces of artillery, and 1,000 horses. He landed in La Serena and had the rival contenders for the for the governorship, Francisco de Villagra and Francisco de Aguirre arrested and sent to Peru and put his own men in control of the province. Sending his cavalry by land he sailed south in winter and landed in early June 1557 on the island of La Quiriquina at the mouth of the Bay of Concepción. He ordered a party to land at Penco and reconstruct the fort of Concepción. A Mapuche army attempted to storm the fort but were defeated by artillery and gunfire. After his cavalry and horses arrived, Mendoza began his advance to the South and another Mapuche army including Galvarino attempted to stop them in the open feild in the Battle of Lagunillas but again were defeated after hard fighting and as a result their fortress at Andalicán the gateway to Arauco was left undefended and was captured soon after the battle.
Caupolicán lead the Mapuche unsuccessfully resisting the advance of Mendoza by attacking him from ambush in the Battle of Millarapue. After further fighting, Mendoza left the fort and city of Cañete de la Frontera near the site of the ruined fortress of Tucapel and continued to the south. There he established the city of Osorno and explored southward to the Gulf of Ancud. Attempting to throw off the Spanish occupation Caupolicán attacked the fort of Cañete expecting the gates to be opened by the treachery of a yanacona within but he was betrayed instead and was badly defeated. Although he was able to escape immediately after this last battle when Spanish cavalry did not arrive in time to pursue, he was eventually captured and sentenced to death by Captain Alonso de Reinoso and executed by impalement.
After the death of Caupolicán, García Hurtado de Mendoza thought that finally they had subjugated the Mapuche. On the contrary, the manner of Caupolicán's death inspired the Mapuches to continue the struggle with a guerrilla war in which there was no day that some yanaconas or once in a while some encomendero did not die at hands of Mapuches. When the number of missing or dead reached 400 yanaconas and 10 Spaniards, the governor was convinced that he had been mistaken. In Quiapo, the Mapuches constructed a fort that was to stop the forces of Mendoza from marching into Arauco and rebuilding a fort there. Mendoza advanced from Cañete and crushed another Mapuche army at the Battle of Quiapo. After the battle, Hurtado de Mendoza had most of the captured Mapuche executed, but saved Peteguelén, son of Cuyomanque an important cacique in the Arauco region. Through his help and that of the grateful father, he was able contact and to bring most of the leaders of Arauco and Tucapel to submit to Spanish rule following the reconstruction of the fort in Aruaco.[11]
In February 1561, Phillip II relieved García Hurtado de Mendoza, replacing him as governor with the victor over Lautaro, Francisco de Villagra. Mendoza left Chile with the belief that he had overcome the Mapuche. He was one of the few governors who obtained a certain degree of success in the War. This success was due to the large numbers of soldiers, equipment and arms that he brought which were not available to the previous conquerors and the Mapuche did not have a strategist to equal Lautaro. Between the losses of the war and the effects of plague the Mapuche population was decimated. The Mapuches pretended peace, but they had evolved, learning to use Spanish weapons (including firearms and cannon) and horses captured from their conquerors and learned better strategies and tactics. The defeats inflicted by Mendoza had made the Mapuche a united people and one committed to renewing the war against the Spanish to recover their freedom.
[edit] Second Great Rebellion of the Mapuche 1561
[edit] The War during the rule of the Real Audiencia de Chile
[edit] Campaigns between 1568 and 1598
Despite having founded cities and forts in Mapuche territory, all further Spanish conquest attempts failed. The Kingdom of Chile became a problematic region which the Spaniards would possibly have abandoned if they not feared colonization by another European nation in the region. Several Spanish generals and nobles were assigned posts in Chile.
Melchor Bravo de Saravia y Sotomayor
[edit] Campaigns of Rodrigo de Quiroga
[edit] Campaigns of Alonso de Sotomayor
[edit] Campaigns of Martín García Oñez de Loyola
In September of 1592, Martín García Óñez de Loyola was appointed as Captain General directly by Philip II. He insisted in penetrating the Mapuche territory with an army with soldiers coming directly from Panama. He established a fort Santa Cruz in May of 1594, at the confluence of the Bio-Bio and Laja Rivers. The fort was elevated to the rank of city in 1595 giving it the name of Santa Cruz de Oñez. Later, on 21 December of 1598 Oñez de Loyola became the second governor of Chile to die in war with the Mapuches in the Battle of Curalaba.
[edit] End of the Spanish conquest (1598–1604)
[edit] Mapuche Uprising of 1598
The Battle of Curalaba became the beginning of a general uprising that finished all Spanish settlements south of the Bio-Bio River with the exception of Chiloé Island and Valdivia, which was destroyed but rebuilt many years later.
[edit] 17th-century
[edit] Alonso de Ribera and the creation of the Army of Chile
Alonso García de Ramón replaced Alonso de Ribera as governor for the second time in 1605.
[edit] Defensive War
Alonzo de Rivera returned as governor in 1612 appointed by King Philip III at the specific request of Father Luis de Valdivia. Valdivia was the originator of a new system of defensive warfare in Chile. He planned a static frontier separating the Spanish zone from the Indigenous zone, permitting no one but missionaries to enter the south from the Spanish side. The king was in agreement, and although Ribera himself did not totally agree, he followed the royal orders and established the defensive system.
[edit] Resumption of Offensive War
Luis Fernández de Córdoba y Arce
[edit] The Beginning of Parliaments
[edit] The govenment of Antonio de Acuña Cabrera
Francisco Antonio de Acuña Cabrera y Bayona
The last major uprising came in 1655 when Mapuche armies overwhelmed the Spaniards and came to the shores of the Maule River. After that, the Spanish tactics varied from a "defensive war" proposed by Jesuit missionaries, and parliaments with loncos to make agreements with the Mapuche in so called parliaments. This allowed the growth of commerce and increased the mestization.
[edit] Campaigns of the Mestizo Alejo and Misqui
[edit] The later Seventeenth Century
Marcos José de Garro Senei de Artola
[edit] 18th-century
[edit] The Mapuche rebellion of 1723
After 30 years of peace the War of Arauco continued with a Mapuche uprising in 1723[12].
[edit] The risings of 1759 and 1766
Antonio de Guill y Gonzaga
[edit] The Mapuche Rebellion of 1769
Juan de Balmaseda y Censano Beltrán
[edit] The Huilliche Rebellion of 1792
[edit] Relations at the end of the 18th Century
Although the Mapuches did not allow the free transit of huincas ("whites") into the zones that they considered their own land, from about 1780, the associated Mapuche peoples began to accept the limited presence of Spaniards and Creoles in their territories. Also, with the passage of time the Mapuches slowly entered into more frequent interaction with the Hispanic-Creole culture. Thus they would adopt many of their customs and form of life, thanks to the schools for natives, ambassadors, fairs and the parliaments. The Parliament of Negrete of 1803 was the last great parliament of the colonial period of Chile, in which both sides solemnized their peace and alliances. The commerce and unions between Spaniards and Mapuche, generated in addition a mestization that acted like a bridge between both cultures. Thus a coexistence was established between the Spanish, Creoles,and Mapuches, in which things remained nearly the same over most of the next century. Risings and malons were less and less frequent, but among the Mapuches opposition understandably remained towards total integration.
[edit] Chilean War of Independence and Guerra a muerte
During the Chilean War of Independence many Mapuche chiefs allied with the Royalist Spanish that fought for reestablishing the old colonial order in Chile. The Royalist brigadier Gabino Gaínza negotiated with Mapuche chiefs during the Parlament of Quilín in 1814 and gained their support against the Chilean patriots.
In 1817 and 1818 the royalists had suffered many defeats, but continued resistance in south Central Chile together with the Mapuches. José de San Martín who had liberated north-central Chile with Bernardo O'Higgins launched a series of actions against armed bands in the mountains, consisting of assorted outlaws, royalists, and Indians who had taken advantage of the chaos of military expeditions and forced recruitments to pillage and sack the countryside. This time of irregular warfare was later called the Guerra a muerte (Fight to the death) for its merciless tactics, as neither the guerillas nor the government soldiers took prisoners. Only after the band of Vicente Benavides was liquidated in 1822 was the region around Concepcion finally pacified.
[edit] Occupation of Araucanía
[edit] Background
In 1860 Chilean president José Joaquín Pérez Mascayano decided to incorporate the territory between the Bio-Bio River and Toltén River (the Araucanía). With the proclamation of the Kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia by Orélie-Antoine de Tounens it became a priority to incorporate the Araucanía even if Orélie Antonie never was a serious threat. The authorities decided to apply the plan proposed by General Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez which included a mix of military and cultural penetration together with agreements with local chiefs. The plan also included the foundation of cities, building of roads and other public infrastructure such as schools and hospitals.
[edit] The occupation
Cornelio Saavedra advanced in relatively short time to the Malleco River and founded the city of Angol, together with the forts of Mulchén and Lebu in 1862. From Valdivia in the south the troops also succeeded in advancing along the coast into the Toltén River. This first phase of occupation was carried out with relatively low levels of resistance, but soon after the lonco Quilapán started a revolt near Malleco River. When the War of the Pacific started in 1879 much of the troops in the south of Chile were moved north to fight Peru and Bolivia. In 1880 several Mapuche tribes took advantage of this situation and launched a series of spontaneous attacks on to the Chilean forts established in the frontier. With a victorious Chilean army returning from the War of the Pacific, the government of Domingo Santa María launched the final campaign to incorporate the heartland of the Mapuches into Chile. Colonel Gregorio Urrutia was chosen for this task. The old Spanish town of Villarrica was refounded and the forts of Carahue, Lautaro, Pillánlelbu, Temuco, Nueva Imperial and Pucón where founded. The tribes living close to this forts their territory, and about 10,000 Mapuche Indians were killed in skirmishes by the Chilean army. Many of the survivors escaped to mountains where they joined with the Pehuenches and other tribes escaping from Argentine territory. Some indigenous remnants were placed into reductions and their land was given to Chilean and foreign settlers. Some historians consider the occupation of the Araucania to be the end of a 300-years long War of Arauco.
[edit] Aftermath
Araucanía was not fully "pacified" after the campaigns, and it remained an insecure land, in spite of military efforts. Even nowadays some Mapuche groups continue "pillaging" haciendas in their ancestral lands. With the construction of the Malleco viaduct in the 1890s, the region became more accessible and colonization southward in Chile increased even more.
[edit] See also
- Occupation of the Araucanía
- Conquest of the Desert
- History of Chile
- Pedro de Valdivia
- Lautaro
- Caupolican
- Araucanization
[edit] References
- ^ a b c Valdivia, Carta 15 de octubre de 1550
- ^ Jerónimo de Vivar, Crónica y relación copiosa y verdadera de los reinos de Chile, Capítulo XCIV and XCV ; Marmolejo, Historia Capítulo X ; Lobera , Crónica Capítulo XXXI
- ^ Vivar, Crónica Capítulo XCVII ; Marmolejo, Historia Capítulo XI ; Lobera , Crónica Capítulo XXXIII
- ^ Vivar, Crónica , Capítulo CXXVII.
- ^ Vivar, Crónica, Capítulo CXXVIII
- ^ Contempory sources have various numbers in his army: 3,000 men, Vivar, Cap. CXXVIII; 300 men, Marmolejo, Cap. XXII; 8,000 men, Lobera, Cap. LIV.
- ^ Lobera, Chapter LIV
- ^ Diego de Rosales, Historia general de el Reyno de Chile, Flandes Indiano, Tomo II, Cap. VIII.
- ^ Said to be 10,000 men, Lobera, Cap. LV
- ^ Diego de Rosales, Historia general, Tomo II, Cap. X. It is not known if the leader called Chillan by Rosales was Lobera's Panigualgo.
- ^ Pedro Mariño de Lobera, Crónica del Reino de Chile, Parte tercera, Capítulo XI
- ^ Vicente Carvallo y Goyeneche, Descripcion Histórico Geografía del Reino de Chile, Tomo II, Capítulo LXXV, LXXVI and LXXVII
[edit] Sources
- Pedro de Valdivia, Cartas de Pedro de Valdivia (Letters of Pedro Valdivia), University of Chile: Diarios, Memorias y Relatos Testimoniales: (on line in Spanish)
- Jerónimo de Vivar, Crónica y relación copiosa y verdadera de los reinos de Chile (Chronicle and abundant and true relation of the kingdoms of Chile)ARTEHISTORIA REVISTA DIGITAL; Crónicas de América (on line in Spanish)
- Alonso de Góngora Marmolejo,Historia de Todas las Cosas que han Acaecido en el Reino de Chile y de los que lo han gobernado (1536-1575) (History of All the Things that Have happened in the Kingdom of Chile and of they that have governed it (1536-1575)), University of Chile: Document Collections in complete texts: Cronicles (on line in Spanish)
- Pedro Mariño de Lobera,Crónica del Reino de Chile , escrita por el capitán Pedro Mariño de Lobera....reducido a nuevo método y estilo por el Padre Bartolomé de Escobar. Edición digital a partir de Crónicas del Reino de Chile Madrid, Atlas, 1960, pp. 227-562, (Biblioteca de Autores Españoles ; 569-575). Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes (on line in Spanish)
- Melchor Jufré del Águila, Compendio historial del Descubrimiento y Conquista del Reino de Chile(Historial compendium of the Discovery and Conquest of the Kingdom of Chile), University of Chile: Document Collections in complete texts: Cronicles (on line in Spanish)
- Alonso González de Nájera, COLECCIÓN DE DOCUMENTOS INÉDITOS PARA LA HISTORIA DE ESPAÑA, TOMO XLVIII: Desengaño y reparo de la guerra del reino de Chile (Disappointment and repairs of the war of the kingdom of Chile), MADRID, IMPRENTA DE LA VIUDA DE CALERO. Calle de Santa Isabel, núm. 26. 1866. Digitized Sep 12, 2007
- Diego de Rosales, “Historia General del Reino de Chile”, Flandes Indiano, 3 tomos. Valparaíso 1877 - 1878.
- Coleccíon de historiadores de Chile y documentos relativos a la Historia Nacional, Tomo II By Instituto Chileno de Cultura Hispánica, Academia Chilena de la Historia Published 1862 Imprenta del Ferrocarril, Digitized Jul 27, 2006
- Pedro de Cordoba y Figueroa, HISTORIA DE CHILE(1492-1717)
- Coleccíon de historiadores de Chile Tomo XV, HlSTORlA GEOGRÁFlCA, NATURAL Y CIVIL DEL REINO DE CHILE POR EL JESUITA FELIPE GOMEZ DE VIDAURRE, TOMO II ,CON UNA INTRODUCCIÓN BIOGRÁFICA Y NOTAS POR J. T. MEDINA , SANTIAGO DE CHILE, IMPRENTA ERCILLA, 1889 Google Books, Digitized Aug 4, 2005(History of Chile 1535-1764)
- Vicente Carvallo y Goyeneche, Descripcion Histórico Geografía del Reino de Chile (Description Historical Geography of the Kingdom of Chile), University of Chile: Document Collections in complete texts: Cronicles (on line in Spanish)(History of Chile 1425-1788)
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