Goguryeo language

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The Goguryeo language was spoken in the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo (37 BC – AD 668), one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The language is also known as Koguryo, Koguryoic, and Koguryoan.

It is unknown except for a small number of words, which mostly suggest that it was similar but not identical to the language of Silla and Baekje, the other two of the Three Kingdoms, and influenced by the Tungusic languages. Supporters of the Altaic language family often classify the Goguryeo language as a member of that language family. Most Korean linguists believe that Goguryeo language was closest to the Altaic languages out of the Three Kingdoms.

Striking similarities between Baekje and Goguryeo can also be found, which is consistent with the legends that describe Baekje being founded by the sons of Goguryeo's founder. The Goguryeo names for government posts are mostly similar to those of Baekje and Silla.

There are some hypotheses on the classification of the Goguryeo language which is disputed at the present time. [1] Some linguists propose the so-called "Buyeo languages" family that includes the languages of Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Old Japanese. Chinese records suggest that the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, East Okjeo, and Gojoseon were similar, while the Goguryeo language differed significantly from that of Malgal (Mohe)[1][2][3]

Some words of Goguryeo origin can be found in the old Korean language (early 10th to late 14th century) but most were soon replaced with ones of Silla origin.

Contents

[edit] Vocabulary comparison

The tables below provides a vocabulary comparison that illustrates a number of examples of sound shifts that have occurred between Goguryeo languages and the main Buyeo and Tungusic languages, along with a selection of minority languages.

English Goguryeo
pronun.		 Turkic Mongol Old Japanese Japanese Baekje Silla Middle Korean Korean Tungusic Jurchen Manchu Evenki
ruler kʌi / kai(皆)
kai-sɐ(皆次)
 qaγan
kagan		 kaγan(可汗) ki1mi1 *** ka(瑕)
kisi(吉支)
nirimɯ(君)		 kan(干)
kɯm(今)		 kɯi긔(王) nim kɯm
 *** *** *** ***
sharp shooter jumong,chumo
(朱蒙,鄒牟)		 *** jəmə("noted bow"),
Jobe-Mergen		 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** jolin-manga ,
julil-muəl(卓琳莽阿)		 ***
gold so(蘇)
sol(召尸, silver)		 *** *** *** *** so
(所)		 so 素 ("gold") *** sö("metal")
söh 쇳		 *** *** sele("iron")
šun("sun")		 sigūn("sun")
recover territory
(復舊土)		 ta mul(多勿) *** *** *** *** *** *** *** taɕi ("again") *** *** *** ***
north(back) je(提)
jwat(絶)
椽那部,提那部,絶奴部,後部		 arka("back") hoina (Daur huainə)
utara
umara		 *** *** *** *** tuih tui
("back, behind")		 xama *** amargi
amasi("back")		 ***
south(front) kuan(灌)
(灌奴部)		 kuzey,Ön(front) *** *** *** 久知下(kujiha) *** *** *** *** *** julergi ***
east(left) źwən,sun(順),
(順奴部)		 doğu,sol(left) źeü ,
źegün		 *** *** 得安(dɯkan) *** *** ön("left")
sae("east")		 źun *** dergi jun
jəgin("左")
west(right) yən (涓),
(涓奴部)		 batı ürüne ,
barun		 *** *** *** *** *** orɯn("right")
parɯn("right")		 xangid *** wargi anŋū(right)
stone *** taš cilaɣu(n) (Classical)
culuu (Khalkha)
šuluu(n) (Buryat)		 *** *** turak(珍惡) *** tōlh tōl *** *** *** ***
rock, cliff (巌,峴,岑) pa-・ιəi,pua-・ιəi*pàI,pa'i /pua-斤ei,*paxe
巴衣,波衣,波兮		 *** *** iɸa / iɸaɸo
(probably unrelated)		 iwao ("great rock, bedrock") *** *** pahoy（巌）巴衣,바회 pawi wehe (Manchu)
pax（石・崖）
(Nivkh)		 *** *** ***
land (壌,壤) no
内/奴～弩/悩
nori
奴閭		 *** ńurū *** *** *** nu¨～nu¨ri/nε (世） *** nuri na (地,土地） na na（土地）,noro(-n) ***
nation (nua) > na / no
內,那,奴,惱
ra(羅)		 ili ulus(<*hulu-s<* bulu-s) *** *** puri (夫里) *** narah nara guru-n(< * buru-n) guru-n(< * buru-n) gurun ***
walled city, fort, castle hol / holo
(忽)
kuru / kolo (溝婁,屈, 骨)		 qol-γan küri-yen '울타리, 방책',/qol-γan koɸori (郡) *** *** *** *** koɯl (邑, 郡) kur ~kur ~kuran *** kuran~ kuren 城, 柵
golo（省）		 ***
middle (中) kapɐl 加火 *** *** *** *** *** *** kaβɔn
가ㅸㄴ		 kaun(-de)
-gaus/-aus 가웃/아웃("half")		 *** *** *** ***
so big, best māk (莫)
ma(馬)
makhara(莫何邏)
莫何邏繡支,莫何何羅支		 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** mal-말
mat 맏("first;eldest;oldest")		 maŋga ("strong") *** maŋga ("difficult; tough, strong; somewhat more, somewhat better") maŋa ("strong")
minister makhaharaji
(莫何何羅支/太大兄)
~ji("guy")		 *** *** *** *** *** kakgan
(角干)		 *** *** *** *** *** ***
leader ,chief makli-ji(莫離支)
~ji("guy")		 baš(head) *** *** *** *** malip-kan(麻立干)
hasə(河西)		 maruha(瑪樓下,抹樓下)
 məri(head) *** *** *** ***
summit(峰) süni (首泥) *** *** so1ra ("sky; tip, top, above (the trees, etc.)") *** *** *** sunɯrk 수늙 tɕəŋsuri 정수리 ("top of the head") *** *** *** ***
high dat/§ap (or tar)
(達)		 *** *** taka-（高） *** 達率 *** *** *** *** *** den ("high")
dekde- ("to rise")		 ***
mountain (山) tara / tal (達)
 taγ（山） aɣula(n) (Classical Mongolian)
ūl (Khalkh)
ūla (Buryat)
aulə (Daur)		 yama(山)/mure(山)/mori(森) *** *** tɔrɔ(督)
tara(多禮,多羅)
("land")		 moyh(山) me-뫼
tang,tal("land")
tuk("hill")
orɯm (Jeju dialect)		 *** *** alin ***
dike (堤) tu (吐)
 töpü *** take2（岳） *** *** *** *** 언덕 əntək
둑 tuk(堤)		 *** *** *** ***
tree, wood kιənul / naro?
(斤乙)		 i¨(森)/i¨γac(木) *** ki2 / ke2 ～ ko2　 *** *** *** 斤:nal(訓)/kɯn근 kɯru 그루 ("stump; unit for counting trees")
namu 나무 ("tree; wood")		 *** *** *** ***
water (水) mi (米)
mie,moro(買,模盧)		 *** mören(江, 海)
müren (沐漣) /moron (木連) (Khitanese)		 mi1du/mi1/mi1n- mizu mi(彌) *** mɯl mul mu mu 沒 muke
wakka, pe (Ainu)		 mū(水)
spring water (泉(井)) əɯl(於乙):井
iri(伊梨):泉		 bul-a-q(泉)/bul-a-γ(泉) ωs (水) wi ("well; reservoir, irrigation pond") *** *** ɯl(乙) umɯl ("well") umul ("well") eri～erri（"small river" 川）
(Nivkh)		 *** üla ("large river" 江) ***
pond nemi / naymi
(内米)		 *** namug ("marsh, swamp")  ? nami1 ("wave") *** mi(r)ji
(蜜地,彌知)		 *** *** mos 못 ("pond")
nɯpʰ 늪 ("swamp")		 namu, lamu ("sea, ocean; lake" 海) *** mūsa ("swamp") ***
river kur(屈)
na(那)		 köl("lake") *** *** *** nari(那利)
久麻那利		 *** kɔrɔm 가람
nāyh 냏,내		 karam 가람
nɛː 내		 *** *** *** ***
sea patar
(波旦)		 *** *** wata *** *** 波珍 padɔl padah～parʌl pada 바다 *** *** *** ***
mouth huət-ts‘ii/ku ërtsi/k útsi< *kutui, >* kolci/ko-ts‘ii
(忽次/古次/串)		 *** 훌츠qurc(Khalka)("skewer, spit" 串) kutu～kuti/kuti < *kutui *** *** *** koc 곶 ("skewer, spit; promontory" 串) kulrε (Jeju dialect)
kul (South Jeolla dialect)		 *** *** *** ***
to enter ・ιi/*i
(伊)		 *** ire-
(to come)		 ir-（入） *** *** *** ip（口）/ip（門戸） *** i-（入） *** *** ***
new ʃιəu/*sü
首		 *** *** *** *** *** say say (새) sɛ *** iche *** ***
cow ʃιəu/*sü
首		 *** *** usi *** *** *** ʃyo/쇼 so *** *** *** ***
pig to-sie/to-s^i¨ʌŋ
烏斯/烏生		 *doŋuz > domuz *** usi ("ox; cattle")
wi ("swine")		 *** *tɕo-nʲi
(猪耳)		 *** totʰ 돝 twɛːji, toyaji(dialect), tochi(dialect) *** *** *** ***
water deer kosya
(古斯也)		 *** *** kuzika *** *** *** *** korani
고라니 ("Manchurian elk")
kōrɛŋi, korɛi (Gyeongsang dialect)		 *** *** kandahan ("a kind of deer") ***
horse *** *** mori～muri uma～muma *** *** *** ｍʌl/(馬) mal mori
(Nanai)		 *** morin ***
ax ・ιo-sie ,
nərə-si
(於斯)		 *** *** wono2 *** *** *** *todzgɔy
(烏子蓋) ("ax")
nɔlh 날ㅎ ("blade")		 nal (칼)날 ("blade")
nas ("sickle; scythe")
tōkki ("ax")		 *** *** anjikū ("hatchet") ***
wide (廣) ə-si , nərə-si,
(於斯)		 *** osy/esy 阿斯(寬大)
nalai		 *** *** *** *** 어위 (< *어쉬) nəlbɯn 넓은 *** očo 我撮(寬) ončo(廣) ***
wing nərəgi
əji(於支)		 *älig > el ("hand") *** *** *** *** *** *** nalgɛ 날개 *** *** asχa ***
transverse (横) ・ιo-sie/*es
(於斯)		 *** *** yo2ko2（横)/yo2k-（避） *** *** *** əs/엇 *** *** *** *** ***
lead nəi-miuət/namer
(乃勿)		 *** *** namari *** *** *** *namɔr nap/납 *** *** *** ***
valley tan/tuən/t‘ən
(旦,頓,呑)		 *** *** tani *** *** *** tʌn～tuʌn（"village", 村） *** *** *** *** ***
grain niəŋ-biuʌt
仍伐		 *** *** ina-ɸo（"ear of rice"）
mi2（"fruit, seed, grain"）		 *** *** *** pyə（"rice plant; unhulled rice"） nuy（"grains of unhulled rice amongst hulled rice"） *** *** *** ***
rough kuət-・ιəi
(骨衣)		 *** *** *** *** *** ka¨cʰɔ¨l kəcʰɯl- (荒) *** *** *** *** ***
plough ka-ʃιi
(加尸)		 kerci-（切る、溝を掘る） *** *** *** *** *** karai（木[木+欠]・鍬, kal-（耕す, kal（刀） *** gerbe-(折る)
(Nanai)		 *** halhan（犂先）/halhan～halgan(犂[金+華]) gerbe-(折る)
side edge ka-(・a)
(加阿)		 kera *** *** *** *** *** kʌs kā *** *** *** ***
round (圓) toŋ-pιuəi
(冬非)		 *** *** tubura（丸）/maro（丸） *** *** *** tuŋgɯl-（圓） tuŋgɯl-（圓} *** *** *** ***
egg (丸) anʃi, anʒip, ɣwando
(安市,安十,丸都)		 *** ənduhə (Daur) tubura（"round"）/ maro（"round; circle"） *** *** *** *** al 알 (x)elū- *** *** elū
foot (足) tor (廻) *** *** *** *** *** *** *** tari 다리 *** *** *** ***
hair (毛) tʰjʌr (鐵) *** *** *** *** *** *** *** tʰʌr 털 *** *** *** ***
layer (重) biar/bιεt
(別)		 *** *** ɸe *** *** *** pʌl *** *** *** *** ***
pine tree(松) pιu-sie/pιu-so
(扶蘇/扶蘇)		 *** *** matu matsu bu(扶,負)
so(蘇)		 *** sol（松）/pos（樺） sol,sonamu *** *** *** ***
deep bιuk-sie/puk
(伏斯)		 *** *** ɸuka-si/puka- *** *** *** kiph u˙n kiph-
puk ("deeply")		 *** *** *** ***
weasel (狌) yia-ʃιi
(也尸)		 *** *** *** *** *** *** yezï ~ yezɣ-
("fox")		 yəu ("fox")
여시yəsi(dialect)		 *** *** *** ***
village ιi-bιuʌt-tʃιe
(伊伐支)		 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
frost sat
(薩)		 *** *** sai, see, zai, zae
(dialectal Japanese words for "icicle" or "ice on the branches of trees or on the surface of a body of water")		 *** *** *** səri *** *** *** *** ***
lush (菁) ka-tʃιe
(加支)		 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** kəch-(蕪)
kis- ("lush, overgrown with weeds, overrun with plants")		 *** *** *** ***
swan (鵠) ko-・ιəi
(古衣)		 qoγu *** kukuɸi1～kubi1 *** *** *** kohay
kon		 koni *** *** *** ***
group, tribe ul (于尸) uruk ("clan") ulus ("people, nation, tribe, horde") udi ("clan, family; the standing of one's family, the social status of one's family, lineage, birth; surname") *** *** *** ul（"relations; relatives; kinsfolk; clan"）
uri ("we, us; the Korean people, Koreans")		 *** *** *** urse ("people") ***
tooth kʌi-ʃιi
(皆尸)		 *** *** ki1 ("fang; tusk") *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
flat, level pii-lιεt / piar
(比烈)		 biri *** ɸi1ra-(比良) hirata- *** *** *** pʌl *** *** *** ***
mother ya chi
(也次)		 Ana *** ɸaɸa("mother")/oya("parent") *** *** *** 어ㅿㅣ
əzi		 어미əmi
아매,에마 ame,ema(north dialect)		 *** eniyen a ja ***
baby gιəu-sie / kus / kyus
(仇斯)		 koto("son"匈奴語)
kız ("girl; daughter")
O'gul		 *** ko1 (子) kodomo *** *** *** koma(童)
koma-(小-)		 *** omo *** kuŋa (子供)
bear komok
(功木)		 *** *** kuma kuma koma *** kom kōm *** *** *** ***
rabbit *to-sie-həｍ
(烏斯含)
 tawïsγan *** usagi1 / wosagi1 usagi *** *** thos-gi 톳기 tho-ggi 토끼 *** *** *** ***
to meet pʌk/*pak
(伯)		 bak-（"to see, to look; to find"） *** *** *** *** *** poizʌp- ("to humbly show oneself, to meet (an honored person)") po-（"to see, to look"）/ poyp-（"to have an audience with, to meet (an honored person)"） *** baka- ("to look for, to seek, to search") baha-（"to get, to obtain"） baka-（"to find"）
hard ma
(馬)		 *** *** ma- ("true, real") *** *** *** modir- mōjir- ("harsh; severe; cruel") *** manga(難) maŋga(堅,難) maŋa
heart
chest		 kιo-sιi
(居尸)		 göğüs kökün ko2ko2ro2("heart")/koro("oneself") *** *** *** *** kogäŋi ("core") / kasʰɯm ("chest, heart") *** *** huhun (乳,乳房) ***
garlic mai-tʃιi
(買尸)		 *** maŋgirsun(野蒜) mi1ra(韮) nira ("garlic chives") *** *** manʌl
(蒜)		 manɯl *** *** maca ("garlic chives") ***
root tsʌm
(斬)		 *** *** *** *** *** pul?(根) pulhuy(根) ppuri tʃamγ（根株）
(Nivkh)		 *** *** ***
writing
literature
(文)		 kɯl/kιən-ʃιi
(斤尸)		 *** *** ko2to2（"word, speech, language"） *** *** *** kɯl kɯl *** herse hergen ***
jade ko-ʃie
(古斯)		 *** gas kusiro2（"bracelet") *** *** *** kusɯl ("jewel") *** *** γun gu ***
hole (孔) dzei〈tsei〉-ts‘ii
斉次/濟次		 *** *** suk-(透), suki（隙） suki ("chink, gap, vulnerable point") *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
hole (穴) kap,kap-pii
甲,甲比		 qapca（峡谷）, qapi¨γ（門蔽い） *** kaɸi1 （"gorge, strait, narrow valley") *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
three mir, mil
(密)
siet/s^ïei
(悉/史)		 bis(5) gurav mi1 mi *** mil sei/səih 셋 sʰet̚ *** ilan *** ***
five ütsi,uci,üc,
uca,uchha
(于次,弓次)		 üç(3) tabun itu itsu *** *** tasul (打戌) tasət
닷 tah		 dügün sunja *** ***
seven nan-・ιən,
nanən,nanun,
nanin
(難隠)		 Yeti *** nana *** *** *** (n)ìlgɯp(一急) (n)ìlgúp nadan nadan *** ***
ten tək,duk
(德)		 on
toquz(9)		 arav to2/to2wo tō- *** *** *** 열 yəl(10)
온on(100)
즈믄chɯmun(1000)		 juwa juwan *** ʒuwan
black *kəmər, kəmhək
(今勿)		 Qara *** kuro1 kuro *** *** kəm-/검- 검 kʌm *** *** *** ***
white nə γei
ʃιi-lap
(奈兮 / 尸臘)		 Aq *** sira(白) shiro *** *** hʌy-(白) hʌy-
hin
hayan		 *** *** *** ***
red s^a-bιuk
s^a-pιuəi-kιən
sa(i)puk, sa(i)pikon
sapi
沙伏, 沙非斤		 Qyzyl *hulaɣan > ulaan so2ɸo<*so2po/so2ɸo(赭,朱)/sa(接頭語) *** supi(赤鳥) sapi(泗沘) sitpɯk(赤) 붉은pulgɯn
시뻘건sippəlgən("deep red")		 *** *** fulgiyan ***
yellow kweyru/kuət *** *** ki2-~ kú- ki(iro) *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
green (綠) puruk/bιuʌt-lιək
(伐力)		 *** *** *** *** *** *** phɯrɯn ("blue, green") pharan
phurɯn ("blue, green")		 *** *** *** ***

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ 後漢書 東夷列傳 第七十五 挹婁
  2. ^ 魏書 捲一百 列傳第八十八 勿吉
  3. ^ 北史 捲九十四 列傳第八十二 勿吉

[edit] Further reading

  • Beckwith, C. I. (2004). Koguryo, the language of Japan's continental relatives: an introduction to the historical-comparative study of the Japanese Koguryoic languages with a preliminary description of Archaic northeastern Middle Chinese. Brill's Japanese studies library, v. 21. Boston: Brill. ISBN 9004139494
  • Beckwith (2006). "Methodological Observations on Some Recent Studies of the Early Ethnolinguistic History of Korea and Vicinity." Altai Hakpo 2006, 16: 199-234.
  • Beckwith (2006). "The Ethnolinguistic History of the Early Korean Peninsula Region: Japanese-Koguryoic and Other Languages in the Koguryo, Paekche, and Silla Kingdoms." Journal of Inner and East Asian Studies, 2006, Vol. 2-2: 34-64.
  • Beckwith (2007): Koguryo, the Language of Japan's Continental Relatives: An Introduction to the Historical-Comparative Study of the Japanese-Koguryoic Languages, with a Preliminary Description of Archaic Northeastern Middle Chinese. Brill Academic Publishers, 2004. ISBN 90-04-13949-4. Second edition, 2007. ISBN 90-04-16025-5
  • http://thomaspellard.ryukyu.googlepages.com/reviewKoguryro.pdf

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

[edit] Japanese

[edit] Korean

[edit] English

v • d • e
Altaic languages
Notes: *Japonic and Korean are not generally recognized as belonging to the Altaic language family. See also Buyeo languages.
v • d • e
Buyeo languages
Northern
Buyeo: Buyeo† · Okjeo† · Dongye† · Yemaek† · Goguryeo†
Japonic: Old Japanese† · Late Old Japanese† · Japanese · Ryukyuan
Southern
Languages